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Category: evolution – Page 9

A new Yale study provides a fuller picture of the genetic changes that shaped the evolution of the human brain, and how the process differed from the evolution of chimpanzees.

For the study, published Jan. 30 in the journal Cell, researchers focused on a class of genetic switches known as Human Accelerated Regions (HARs), which regulate when, where, and at what level genes are expressed during evolution.

While past research theorized that HARs may act by controlling different genes in humans compared to chimpanzees, our closest primate relative, the new findings show that HARs fine-tune the expression of genes that are already shared between humans and chimpanzees, influencing how neurons are born, develop, and communicate with each other.

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Uniquely human features of neocortical development and maturation are not only intriguing for their implications in human-specific cognitive abilities, but they are also vulnerable to dysregulation which could cause or contribute to distinctly human brain disorder pathophysiology. The human cerebral cortex is essential for both cognition and emotional processing and dysregulation of these processes of the cortex are associated with a wide range of brain disorders including schizophrenia (SZ), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) (Berman and Weinberger, 1991; Rubenstein, 2011; Xu et al., 2019). Much remains to be learned about the mechanisms governing cortical expansion and responses to pathogenesis between human and non-human primates (NHPs) (Otani et al., 2016). Understanding these differences could shed light on the underlying mechanisms responsible for human-specific brain disorders and lead to the identification of key targets for the development of effective therapies.

Subtle differences observed by comparing human neurodevelopment to that of our closest evolutionary relatives could reveal underlying mechanisms, including genomic or transcriptional differences, contributing to varied phenotypes (Pollen et al., 2019). Human-specific responses to pathogenesis might be elucidated in a similar manner; by comparing brain pathophysiology of humans to our non-human primate counterparts (Hof et al., 2004). Although rodent models have taught us much about basic mammalian brain development and disorders (Fernando and Robbins, 2011), comparing governing processes and responses to species more closely related to humans can reduce the number of variables allowing for the identification of specific mechanisms responsible for observed deviations. Studies analyzing induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos (Pan paniscus) show large sets of differentially expressed genes between human and NHP iPSCs. Perhaps the most compelling differentially expressed genes are those related to increased long interspersed element-1 (LINE-1) mobility in chimpanzees and bonobos, which could have implications on the rates of genetic divergence among species, and alternative mechanisms of pluripotency maintenance in chimpanzees (Marchetto et al., 2013; Gallego Romero et al., 2015). Furthermore, when human and NHP iPSCs were differentiated to neurons, they displayed distinctive migratory patterns at the neural progenitor cell (NPC) stage followed by contrasting morphology and timing of maturation in neurons (Marchetto et al., 2019). Despite the ability of two-dimensional (2D) PSC-derived neural cultures to demonstrate basic organization and transcriptomic changes of early brain development (Yan et al., 2013), while retaining the genetic background of the somatic cells from which they are reprogrammed, they lack the ability to develop complex cytoarchitecture, recapitulate advanced spatiotemporal transcriptomics, and brain region interconnectivity (including migration and axon guidance) of ensuing primate brain development (Soldner and Jaenisch, 2019). Intricate cellular heterogeneity, complex architecture, and interconnectivity of neurodevelopment, in addition to pathogenic responses, could be observed by comparing human and NHP brain tissues; however, ethical concerns and the inaccessibility of pre-and postnatal primate brain tissues limits the feasibility of such studies.

While brain organoids might be a long way from forming or sharing thoughts with us, they could still teach us much about ourselves. Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D), PSC-derived structures that display complex radial organization of expanding neuroepithelium following embedding in an extracellular matrix like Matrigel and can recapitulate some subsequent processes of neurodevelopment including neurogenesis, gliogenesis, synaptogenesis, heterogenous cytoarchitecture, cell and axon migration, myelination of axons, and spontaneously-active neuronal networks (Lancaster et al., 2013; Bagley et al., 2017; Birey et al., 2017; Quadrato et al., 2017; Xiang et al., 2017; Marton et al., 2019; Shaker et al., 2021). It is likely that all these features of neurodevelopment are governed by some degree of specifies-specific dynamics. Brain organoids can be generated from human and NHP PSCs and, since some pathways regulating neural induction and brain region specification are well conserved in primates, both unguided cerebral organoids and guided brain region specific organoids can be generated (Mora-Bermúdez et al., 2016; Field et al., 2019; Kanton et al., 2019). Additional protocols have been established for the derivation of brain region specific organoids from human PSCs (hPSCs), including dorsal forebrain, ventral forebrain, midbrain, thalamus, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and telencephalic organoids (Muguruma et al., 2015; Sakaguchi et al., 2015; Jo et al., 2016; Bagley et al., 2017; Birey et al., 2017; Watanabe et al., 2017; Xiang et al., 2017, 2019; Qian et al., 2018). With some modifications, these methods could prove to be successful in establishing brain region-specific organoids from a variety of NHP PSC lines allowing for the reproducible comparison of homogeneous, human-specific neurodevelopment and brain disorder pathophysiology in brain regions beyond the cortex.

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The concept of computational consciousness and its potential impact on humanity is a topic of ongoing debate and speculation. While Artificial Intelligence (AI) has made significant advancements in recent years, we have not yet achieved a true computational consciousness capable of replicating the complexities of the human mind.

AI technologies are becoming increasingly sophisticated, performing tasks that were once exclusive to human intelligence. However, fundamental differences remain between AI and human consciousness. Human cognition is not purely computational; it encompasses emotions, subjective experiences, self-awareness, and other dimensions that machines have yet to replicate.

The rise of advanced AI systems will undoubtedly transform society, reshaping how we work, communicate, and interact with the digital world. AI enhances human capabilities, offering powerful tools for solving complex problems across diverse fields, from scientific research to healthcare. However, the ethical implications and potential risks associated with AI development must be carefully considered. Responsible AI deployment, emphasizing fairness, transparency, and accountability, is crucial.

In this evolving landscape, ETER9 introduces an avant-garde and experimental approach to AI-driven social networking. It redefines digital presence by allowing users to engage with AI entities known as ‘noids’ — autonomous digital counterparts designed to extend human presence beyond time and availability. Unlike traditional virtual assistants, noids act as independent extensions of their users, continuously learning from interactions to replicate communication styles and behaviors. These AI-driven entities engage with others, generate content, and maintain a user’s online presence, ensuring a persistent digital identity.

ETER9’s noids are not passive simulations; they dynamically evolve, fostering meaningful interactions and expanding the boundaries of virtual existence. Through advanced machine learning algorithms, they analyze user input, adapt to personal preferences, and refine their responses over time, creating an AI representation that closely mirrors its human counterpart. This unique integration of AI and social networking enables users to sustain an active online presence, even when they are not physically engaged.

The advent of autonomous digital counterparts in platforms like ETER9 raises profound questions about identity and authenticity in the digital age. While noids do not possess true consciousness, they provide a novel way for individuals to explore their own thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions. Acting as digital mirrors, they offer insights that encourage self-reflection and deeper understanding of one’s digital footprint.

As this frontier advances, it is essential to approach the development and interaction with digital counterparts thoughtfully. Issues such as privacy, data security, and ethical AI usage must be at the forefront. ETER9 is committed to ensuring user privacy and maintaining high ethical standards in the creation and functionality of its noids.

ETER9’s vision represents a paradigm shift in human-AI relationships. By bridging the gap between physical and virtual existence, it provides new avenues for creativity, collaboration, and self-expression. As we continue to explore the potential of AI-driven digital counterparts, it is crucial to embrace these innovations with mindful intent, recognizing that while AI can enhance and extend our digital presence, it is our humanity that remains the core of our existence.

As ETER9 pushes the boundaries of AI and virtual presence, one question lingers:

— Could these autonomous digital counterparts unlock deeper insights into human consciousness and the nature of our identity in the digital era?

© 2025 __Ӈ__

“This was a serendipitous discovery,” said Imad Pasha.

How many rings can galaxies have? This is what a recent study published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters hopes to address as an international team of researchers discovered a unique galaxy with nine rings, possessing six more rings than any known galaxy, that they aptly named the Bullseye Galaxy. This study has the potential to help researchers better understand the formation and evolution of galaxies throughout the universe, potentially resulting in identifying where we could find life.

The Bullseye Galaxy is known as a collisional ring galaxy (CRG) and whose radius is approximately 70 kiloparsecs (228,309 light-years), which is two and a half times larger than our Milky Way Galaxy, which is known as a spiral galaxy. After significant image analysis from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and the W. M. Keck Observatory, the researchers estimate the Bullseye Galaxy was created approximately 50 million years ago when a smaller blue dwarf galaxy collided with the center of the former, resulting in nine giant rings like ripples being created when a pebble is dropped in a water.

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The advent of quantum simulators in various platforms8,9,10,11,12,13,14 has opened a powerful experimental avenue towards answering the theoretical question of thermalization5,6, which seeks to reconcile the unitarity of quantum evolution with the emergence of statistical mechanics in constituent subsystems. A particularly interesting setting is that in which a quantum system is swept through a critical point15,16,17,18, as varying the sweep rate can allow for accessing markedly different paths through phase space and correspondingly distinct coarsening behaviour. Such effects have been theoretically predicted to cause deviations19,20,21,22 from the celebrated Kibble–Zurek (KZ) mechanism, which states that the correlation length ξ of the final state follows a universal power-law scaling with the ramp time tr (refs. 3, 23,24,25).

Whereas tremendous technical advancements in quantum simulators have enabled the observation of a wealth of thermalization-related phenomena26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35, the analogue nature of these systems has also imposed constraints on the experimental versatility. Studying thermalization dynamics necessitates state characterization beyond density–density correlations and preparation of initial states across the entire eigenspectrum, both of which are difficult without universal quantum control36. Although digital quantum processors are in principle suitable for such tasks, implementing Hamiltonian evolution requires a high number of digital gates, making large-scale Hamiltonian simulation infeasible under current gate errors.

In this work, we present a hybrid analogue–digital37,38 quantum simulator comprising 69 superconducting transmon qubits connected by tunable couplers in a two-dimensional (2D) lattice (Fig. 1a). The quantum simulator supports universal entangling gates with pairwise interaction between qubits, and high-fidelity analogue simulation of a U symmetric spin Hamiltonian when all couplers are activated at once. The low analogue evolution error, which was previously difficult to achieve with transmon qubits due to correlated cross-talk effects, is enabled by a new scalable calibration scheme (Fig. 1b). Using cross-entropy benchmarking (XEB)39, we demonstrate analogue performance that exceeds the simulation capacity of known classical algorithms at the full system size.

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Matter in intergalactic space is distributed in a vast network of interconnected filamentary structures, collectively referred to as the cosmic web. With hundreds of hours of observations, an international team of researchers has now obtained an unprecedented high-definition image of a cosmic filament inside this web, connecting two active forming galaxies—dating back to when the universe was about 2 billion years old.

A pillar of modern cosmology is the existence of dark matter, which constitutes about 85% of all matter in the universe. Under the influence of gravity, dark matter forms an intricate cosmic web composed of filaments, at whose intersections the brightest galaxies emerge. This cosmic web acts as the scaffolding on which all visible structures in the universe are built: within the filaments, gas flows to fuel star formation in galaxies. Direct observations of the fuel supply of such galaxies would advance our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution.

However, studying the gas within this cosmic web is incredibly challenging. Intergalactic gas has been detected mainly indirectly through its absorption of light from bright background sources. But the observed results do not elucidate the distribution of this gas. Even the most abundant element, hydrogen, emits only a faint glow, making it basically impossible for instruments of the previous generation to directly observe such gas.

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An international team of scientists has modeled the formation and evolution of the strongest magnetic fields in the universe.

Led by scientists from Newcastle University, University of Leeds and France, the paper was published in the journal Nature Astronomy. The researchers identified the Tayler-Spruit dynamo caused by the fall back of supernova material as a mechanism leading to the formation of low-field magnetars. This new work solves the mystery of low-field formation, which has puzzled scientists since low-field magnetar discovery in 2010.

The team used advanced numerical simulations to model the magneto-thermal evolution of these stars, finding that a specific dynamo process within the proto-neutron star can generate these weaker magnetic fields.

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He has written five well received books on consciousness and developed the Global Neural Workspace model of Consciousness What follows bellow are some of Professor Baars’ observations, Questions (often rhetorical), Quotations, comments, reflections on career and his own theories and my comments (RS) to them as posted to LinkedIn platform. Bernard’s text is in italics. Comments to comments are indicated with ‘BB]’ and responses to those with ‘RS]’. ======== ======== ======== t aware of. ‘ +In the case of non-human animals, we have to get a little bit more creative. We have to decide what behaviors can be used similar sorts of markers as their own form of report.” — David Edelman RS] Or we could ask ~ “is the form of communication between animals sufficient for their needs?” and follow up with “is there Evolutionary Pressure for forms of communication beyond utility?” Those who follow discussion forums may appreciate that what takes an excited discussant 10 paragraphs and 1,000 flaming words can be achieved by a dog with a couple barks and the bearing of teeth ~ which is the more efficient communicative format? BB] Humans seem to have a larger repertoire of uses for consciousness — including language and longer-term planning, self-monitoring and self-reflection, inner speech, metaphor, symbolic representation of experience and deliberate use of imagery. When it comes to sensory consciousness, however, the brain shows little difference between humans and many other mammals. RS] Utility is the key ~ what are those faculties good for? Take them away, individually, and see what we end up with. As such surgical or other intervention is not a practical option we might turn to clinical conditions where patients have such deficits. We may look to Autism, where self reflection, especially in the social context, is lacking. Psychopathy, where there is no inner voice reflecting on social morals. Various other deficits leave individuals with greatly reduced capacity to strive in a community and so we may reflect on the many cognitive faculties we have that appear to have little if any use for the isolated individual. To test this we may examine those who were completely isolated for a significant period of their maturation. There have been cases of children lost in the forest (or dumped there) who survived. Without social stimulation some of heir faculties never matured ~ are these the same faculties that Bernard mentions above? BB] Perhaps half a second after you glance at a word on a page it is converted into a semantic code, to interpret its meaning, guided by the rules of grammar. Going from words to meaning requires a large, unconscious mental lexicon. The lexicon of educated speakers of English contains about 100,000 words. We can understand each one instantly, as soon as it is shown in a sentence that makes sense. Words are complicated things! The OxfordEnglish Dictionary, for example, devotes 75,000 words to clarifying the many different meanings of the word set. RS] The way words are interpreted gives us insight into the how the brain works. If approached in the follow manner we can see what is happening: For each noun there is a denotation and a connotation (the cold dictionary definition and the feeling the word evokes eg ‘Home’). There is a stand alone and contextual meaning of a word that may differ significantly eg “child” and “What are parent-child tree structures in SQL?” The ‘connotation’ is used by the brain to link words into sentences more so than the denotation. If there is a universal background language in the brain, then, it would be based on connotation, not denotation. Why? Because the connotation is innate already and words are appended to pre-existing ‘connotation’ made up of emotion, drives, feelings of all kinds. Watch a child as they acquire their first words ~ they at first use all kinds of signals to convey their intent, their intent is made up of drives, cravings, feelings etc and these become the connotations behind the words they eventually use. s BB] How does the metaphor of a theater help us think about consciousness? RS] The key to many of these approaches, and possible the downfall of at least some of them, is ‘evolvability’. We assume, from our own intuitive experience and logical deduction, that there must be a primary central control. This is a ‘top-down’ approach. But evolution must, by necessity, be ‘bottom-up’. Thus we would expect even the simplest ganglion to have at least some of the properties of consciousness in its own right. Snakes that must rely on different ‘consciousnesses’ for various functions, for instance the pursuing of prey, the killing of prey and the eating of the prey all come from processes so separate that if a mouse after a poisonous bite staggers around and ends up under the snake’s nose the snake will follow the scent trail until it ends up at the mouse, the visual and feeding systems not being able to share information. That system is evolvable, the top-down, apart from religious models, is not evolvable. Thus instead of a separate central process looking down at the senses we consider how the senses and other contributors to cognition swirl together like the funnel of a tornado to form a central consciousness that, in reality, has no independent neural underpinnings of its own due to its emergent nature. Note that ‘life’ also has this nature in that life exists when a collection of chemical reactions ‘swirl’ together, principally in a negative feedback driven homeostatic process, which is most probably also what consciousness actually is… And so we observe how the tornado’s funnel moves around the possible contributors, the audience in the analogy given, rather than a separate process that looks at individual members of the audience. Note that the separate process must consume the information on offer and process it, a ‘infinite regress’ with no end. But the swirling tornado, so to speak, is its own end and does not require any subsequent processes or processing… Note also that any collection of neurons, brain modules or even collections or communities of people can initiate this process.

This link will take you to a page that’s not on LinkedIn.

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Dive into the captivating realm of Biopunk Science Fiction in our latest video! 🌱 Discover what Biopunk is, from genetic engineering to human augmentation, and explore the ethical dilemmas it presents in our modern world. We’ll discuss its evolution through literature and film, touching on iconic works like \.

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